Tuesday, September 8th, 2026
Feast of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary
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Timeline
Major moments in the life of the Church — from today back through councils, fathers, popes, miracles, apparitions, the history that shaped Christendom.
8 May 2025–present
Fathers
Vatican City
Elected 8 May 2025. First pope from the United States; Order of Saint Augustine.
8 May 2025–present
Popes
Vatican City
Elected 8 May 2025. First pope from the United States; Order of Saint Augustine.
2013–2025
Fathers
Rome
First Jesuit and Latin American pope; synodality and care for the poor.
today
Liturgy
Worldwide
The Mass of Paul VI, with the third typical edition of the Missal, remains the ordinary liturgy of the Latin Church worldwide.
24 Oct 2024
Encyclicals
Rome
On the human and divine love of the Heart of Jesus Christ.
2023–
Secular
Israel / Gaza
War after the October 7 attacks; Gaza, hostages, and a wider regional crisis.
29 Jun 2022
Liturgy
Rome
Francis’s apostolic letter on liturgical formation calls the whole Church to rediscover the beauty of the liturgy.
2022–
Secular
Ukraine / Europe
Full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine; Europe’s largest war since 1945.
10 May 2021
Liturgy
Rome
Francis institutes the lay ministry of catechist, complementary to liturgical ministries around the Mass.
10 Jan 2021
Liturgy
Rome
Motu proprio opens the instituted ministries of lector and acolyte to women as well as men.
16 Jul 2021
Liturgy
Rome
Accompanying letter explains the pastoral reasons for restricting the 1962 Missal and affirming the reformed liturgy.
16 Jul 2021
Liturgy
Rome
Francis restricts use of the 1962 Missal and affirms the liturgical books of Paul VI and John Paul II as the unique expression of the lex orandi of the Roman Rite.
18 Dec 2021
Liturgy
Rome
The Congregation for Divine Worship answers questions on implementing the motu proprio’s norms.
2020–2023
Secular
World
Global pandemic; lockdowns, mass death, and disruption of worship, work, and public life.
3 Oct 2020
Encyclicals
Rome
On fraternity and social friendship in a fragmented world.
3 Sep 2017
Liturgy
Rome
Francis’s motu proprio adjusts canon law so episcopal conferences have greater responsibility for liturgical translations.
24 May 2015
Encyclicals
Rome
On care for our common home — integral ecology, the poor, and creation.
c. 2015
Fathers
A practical parish guide for a communal Holy Hour with Eucharistic Exposition and Benediction. It covers vesture and vessels, server notes, the order of Exposition, options for Adoration (Scripture and fervorino, silence, Liturgy of the Hours, Rosary), Benediction with Tantum Ergo and the Divine Praises, and Reposition. Adapted for SanctumNomen from a parish Presider’s Guide circulated as a PDF (c. 2015). Hymns and praises are traditional liturgical forms; the checklists and pastoral suggestions follow the source booklet. Only a priest or deacon may preside at communal Exposition with Benediction.
2013–2025
Popes
Rome
First Jesuit and Latin American pope; synodality and care for the poor.
29 Jun 2013
Encyclicals
Rome
Encyclical on faith begun by Benedict XVI and completed by Francis — the light of faith.
2013
Eucharistic Miracles
Legnica, Poland
Place miracle
27 Nov 2011
Liturgy
English-speaking world
English-speaking countries implement a revised translation of the third typical edition at Mass.
30 Apr 2011
Liturgy
Rome
Instruction clarifies norms for celebrating the 1962 liturgy under Summorum Pontificum.
29 Jun 2009
Encyclicals
Rome
On integral human development in charity and truth in the global economy.
2008
Liturgy
Rome
Corrected reprint of the third typical edition becomes the Latin reference for translators.
2008
Eucharistic Miracles
Sokółka 2008, Poland
Place miracle
22 Feb 2007
Liturgy
Rome
Benedict XVI’s apostolic exhortation on the Eucharist as the source and summit of the Church’s life.
7 Jul 2007
Liturgy
Rome
Benedict XVI liberalizes use of the 1962 Missal as an extraordinary form alongside the Ordinary Form.
30 Nov 2007
Encyclicals
Rome
On Christian hope grounded in God, not in progress alone.
2006
Eucharistic Miracles
Tixtla, Mexico
Place miracle
2005–2013
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 2005 to 2013
25 Dec 2005
Encyclicals
Rome
First encyclical of Benedict XVI: God is love — eros, agape, and the Church’s charity.
7 Oct 2004
Liturgy
Rome
Apostolic letter for the Year of the Eucharist urges deeper love for the Mass and adoration.
25 Mar 2004
Liturgy
Rome
Instruction on abuses and norms for the Eucharist reinforces reverence in celebrating and receiving Holy Communion.
2003–2011
Secular
Iraq
Invasion of Iraq and occupation; regime change, insurgency, and lasting regional upheaval.
4 Dec 2003
Liturgy
Rome
John Paul II marks forty years of Sacrosanctum Concilium and calls for a new liturgical spirituality.
17 Apr 2003
Encyclicals
Rome
On the Eucharist in its relationship to the Church — source and summit of ecclesial life.
2002
Liturgy
Rome
The General Instruction is updated with the editio typica tertia, clarifying roles, gestures, and arrangement of the celebration.
2002
Liturgy
Rome
Editio typica tertia of the Ordinary Form Missal; basis for later vernacular translations.
2001–2021
Secular
Afghanistan
U.S.-led intervention after September 11; two decades of war end with Taliban return in 2021.
28 Mar 2001
Liturgy
Rome
Instruction on vernacular translation of liturgical texts calls for greater fidelity to the Latin typical edition.
2001
Secular
United States
Terror in the United States; new conflicts involving the West and the Middle East.
2001
Eucharistic Miracles
Chirattakonam, India
Place miracle
2000
Secular
Rome / World
Millennium celebration of the Incarnation under John Paul II.
2000
Marian Apparition
Sievernich, Germany
Under investigation
31 May 1998
Liturgy
Rome
Apostolic letter on keeping the Lord’s Day, centered on the Sunday Eucharist.
14 Sep 1998
Encyclicals
Rome
On the relationship between faith and reason in the search for truth.
15 Aug 1997
Liturgy
Rome
Instruction on collaboration of the non-ordained in priestly ministry, including liturgical roles.
25 Mar 1995
Encyclicals
Rome
On the value and inviolability of human life — against abortion, euthanasia, and the culture of death.
25 May 1995
Encyclicals
Rome
On commitment to ecumenism and the quest for full Christian unity.
1995
Marian Apparition
Civitavecchia, Italy
Under investigation
1995
Marian Apparition
Civitavecchia, Italy
Under investigation
25 Jan 1994
Liturgy
Rome
Instruction on inculturation of the Roman Rite within the unity of the Latin liturgy.
6 Aug 1993
Encyclicals
Rome
On the splendor of truth and the foundations of the Church’s moral teaching.
1992–1995
Secular
Bosnia and Herzegovina
War in Bosnia and Herzegovina; Sarajevo under siege, ethnic cleansing, Srebrenica.
1992-1994-1996
Eucharistic Miracles
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Place miracle
1992
Marian Apparition
Akwamu, Ghana
Under investigation
1991–1995
Secular
Croatia
War for Croatia’s independence amid the breakup of Yugoslavia; cities under siege, mass displacement.
1991
Secular
Eurasia
End of the Cold War order; religious life reopens in the East.
1 May 1991
Encyclicals
Rome
Hundredth anniversary of Rerum Novarum; reflects on 1989 and the free society under moral truth.
1991
Eucharistic Miracles
Betania, Venezuela
Place miracle
7 Dec 1990
Encyclicals
Rome
On the permanent validity of the Church’s missionary mandate.
1989
Secular
Berlin
Collapse of communist regimes in Central Europe; John Paul II’s era.
2 Jul 1988
Liturgy
Rome
John Paul II urges generous application of norms for the older form of the Roman Rite.
16 Jan 1988
Liturgy
Rome
Circular letter on preparing and celebrating the Paschal feasts, guiding Holy Week and the Triduum.
4 Dec 1988
Liturgy
Rome
John Paul II’s apostolic letter marks twenty-five years of Sacrosanctum Concilium and urges faithful implementation.
25 Mar 1987
Encyclicals
Rome
On the Blessed Virgin Mary in the life of the pilgrim Church.
30 Dec 1987
Encyclicals
Rome
On social concern twenty years after Populorum Progressio.
18 May 1986
Encyclicals
Rome
On the Holy Spirit in the life of the Church and the world.
2 Jun 1985
Encyclicals
Rome
On Saints Cyril and Methodius and the evangelization of the Slavic peoples.
1985
Marian Apparition
Luiza, Democratic Republic of the Congo
Under investigation
1984
Liturgy
Rome
Bishops may permit celebrations according to the 1962 Missal under limited conditions.
1983
Liturgy
Rome
The revised Code restates norms for celebration, reservation, and the Sunday obligation in the Latin Church.
1983
Marian Apparition
San Nicolás de los Arroyos, Argentina
Bishop approved
1983
Marian Apparition
Varsóvia, Poland
Under investigation
14 Sep 1981
Encyclicals
Rome
On human work, for the ninetieth anniversary of Rerum Novarum.
1981
Marian Apparition
Kibeho, Rwanda
Bishop approved
1981
Marian Apparition
Medjugorje, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Approved devotion
30 Nov 1980
Encyclicals
Rome
On God the Father rich in mercy, revealed in Christ.
1980
Marian Apparition
Cuapa, Nicaragua
Bishop approved
4 Mar 1979
Encyclicals
Rome
First encyclical of John Paul II: Christ the Redeemer as the center of the Church’s mission.
1978–2005
Popes
Rome
1978
Popes
Rome
1976
Marian Apparition
Betania, Venezuela
Bishop approved
1975–1985
Liturgy
Rome
Prayers for Reconciliation and for Masses with Children expand the Missal’s anaphoras.
1975
Liturgy
Rome
A revised editio typica of the post-conciliar Missal incorporates early amendments and new formularies.
1 Nov 1973
Liturgy
Rome
Pastoral norms adapt certain elements of the Mass when many of the assembly are children.
29 Jan 1973
Liturgy
Rome
Instruction widens possibilities for Communion under both kinds and for extraordinary ministers.
1973
Liturgy
Rome / Worldwide
Norms allow instituted or commissioned lay faithful to assist with distribution of Communion when needed.
1973
Marian Apparition
Akita, Japan
Bishop approved
5 Sep 1970
Liturgy
Rome
Instruction guiding implementation of the reformed rites and cautioning against unauthorized experimentation.
post-1970
Liturgy
Rome
The reformed Missal’s additional anaphoras include clear invocations of the Spirit over the gifts and the people.
1970
Liturgy
Rome
The Latin editio typica of the reformed Missal appears for use throughout the Latin Church.
1969–1970
Liturgy
Rome
A vastly expanded cycle of Scripture readings opens the Bible more lavishly at Mass, as Sacrosanctum Concilium asked.
1969
Liturgy
Rome
The liturgical year is reworked: Pre-Lent suppressed, many octaves removed, saints’ rankings simplified.
8 May 1969
Liturgy
Rome
Paul VI establishes a congregation dedicated to the liturgy as the reformed books are promulgated.
25 Jan 1969
Liturgy
Rome
Instruction on liturgical translation guides early vernacular versions of the reformed books.
1969 onward
Liturgy
Worldwide
Some episcopal conferences receive permission for Communion in the hand alongside the traditional manner.
1969 / revisions
Liturgy
Rome
The GIRM explains the structure, roles, and norms of the Ordinary Form celebration of Mass.
1969
Liturgy
Rome
The Order of Readings for Mass establishes the expanded weekday and Sunday lectionary system.
3 Apr 1969
Liturgy
Rome
Apostolic constitution Missale Romanum approves the revised Ordo Missae of the Ordinary Form.
1969
Eucharistic Miracles
San Mauro La Bruca, Italy
Place miracle
1968–1970
Liturgy
Rome
Besides the Roman Canon, additional Eucharistic Prayers enter the Missal for the first time in centuries.
25 Jul 1968
Encyclicals
Rome
On the regulation of birth; reaffirms the Church’s teaching on contraception and married love.
1968
Marian Apparition
Zeitoun, Cairo, Egypt
Bishop approved
25 May 1967
Liturgy
Rome
Instruction on Eucharistic worship links celebration, reservation, and devotion after the Council.
5 Mar 1967
Liturgy
Rome
Instruction on music in the liturgy after Vatican II balances chant, polyphony, and vernacular song.
1967 onward
Liturgy
Latin Church
Restored permanent deacons again proclaim the Gospel, prepare the altar, and distribute Communion at Mass.
4 May 1967
Liturgy
Rome
Further simplifications of the Ordo Missae prepare the way for the new Order of Mass.
1967
Secular
Jerusalem
Israel takes East Jerusalem and the Old City in the June war.
26 Mar 1967
Encyclicals
Rome
On the development of peoples — integral human development and global solidarity.
24 Jun 1967
Encyclicals
Rome
Reaffirms priestly celibacy in the Latin Church after the Council.
1967
Marian Apparition
Natividade, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Under investigation
c. 1965–1970
Liturgy
Worldwide
Many churches rearrange altars so the priest celebrates Mass facing the people, while ad orientem remains lawful.
1964–1967
Liturgy
Worldwide
Episcopal conferences receive wider permission to use the vernacular for readings, orations, and eventually the Canon.
1964–1965
Liturgy
Rome
Sacrosanctum Concilium restores concelebration; a new rite enters the Missal and Pontifical.
7 Mar 1965
Liturgy
Rome / Worldwide
Paul VI celebrates and authorizes early vernacular celebrations as the reformed rites begin to reach parishes.
3 Sep 1965
Liturgy
Rome
Encyclical reaffirms Catholic teaching on the Real Presence amid liturgical change.
1965
Liturgy
Rome
An interim Order of Mass implements early conciliar simplifications before the 1969 Ordo.
3 Sep 1965
Encyclicals
Rome
On the mystery of the Eucharist and the Real Presence amid liturgical renewal.
26 Sep 1964
Liturgy
Rome
First major implementation of liturgical reform: audible Canon doxology, some vernacular, simplified introductory rites.
6 Aug 1964
Encyclicals
Rome
On the Church; develops dialogue with the world during the Second Vatican Council.
1963–1978
Popes
Rome
4 Dec 1963
Liturgy
Vatican
Vatican II’s Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy calls for reform of the rites and fuller participation of the faithful.
11 Apr 1963
Encyclicals
Rome
Landmark encyclical on peace, human rights, and order among nations, addressed also to “all men of good will.”
1962–1965
Councils
Vatican
Renewal of liturgy, ecumenism, and the Church’s mission in the modern world.
1962–1965
Fathers
Vatican
Renewal of liturgy, ecumenism, and the Church’s mission in the modern world.
1962
Liturgy
Rome
The last typical edition of the Tridentine Missal incorporates the 1960 Code of Rubrics.
15 May 1961
Encyclicals
Rome
On Christianity and social progress — updating the Church’s social teaching for the postwar world.
29 Jun 1959
Encyclicals
Rome
First encyclical of John XXIII: truth, unity, and peace under Peter’s chair.
1958–1963
Popes
Rome
1957
Secular
Rome / Europe
Postwar Western Europe begins economic and political integration.
8 Sep 1957
Encyclicals
Rome
On motion pictures, radio, and television in the service of truth and morals.
15 May 1956
Encyclicals
Rome
On devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus as rooted in Scripture and Tradition.
1956
Marian Apparition
La Crosse, Wisconsin, United States
Bishop approved
16 Nov 1955
Liturgy
Rome
Decree restoring the rites of Holy Week — the first major structural reform of the Roman Missal in centuries.
1955
Liturgy
Rome
Major reform of Palm Sunday and the Paschal Triduum; vigils and octaves are curtailed in the calendar.
1955
Marian Apparition
Itaúna, Minas Gerais, Brazil
Under investigation
1954
Marian Apparition
Tarragona, Spain
Under investigation
1953
Marian Apparition
Siracusa, Italy
Bishop approved
1 Nov 1950
Dogmas
Rome
By the apostolic constitution Munificentissimus Deus, Pius XII defines that Mary, at the end of her earthly life, was assumed body and soul into heavenly glory.
12 Aug 1950
Encyclicals
Rome
On some false opinions threatening Catholic doctrine; sets limits for theology and science.
1948
Secular
Israel
Modern Israel established; wars and diplomacy reshape the Holy Land.
1948
Eucharistic Miracles
Rosano, Italy
Place miracle
20 Nov 1947
Liturgy
Rome
Encyclical on the sacred liturgy affirms participation of the faithful and papal authority over rites.
20 Nov 1947
Encyclicals
Rome
Encyclical on the sacred liturgy — active participation and the Church’s authority over the rites.
1947
Marian Apparition
Montichiari, Italy
Under investigation
1947
Marian Apparition
Fontanelle di Montichiari, Italy
Under investigation
1946
Marian Apparition
Pfaffenhofen an der Roth, Germany
Under investigation
30 Sep 1943
Encyclicals
Rome
Encourages Catholic biblical studies using original languages and sound historical methods.
29 Jun 1943
Encyclicals
Rome
On the Church as the Mystical Body of Christ — a cornerstone of twentieth-century ecclesiology.
1939–1958
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1939 to 1958
1939–1945
Secular
World / Europe
Global war and the murder of six million Jews; the Church amid totalitarian regimes.
20 Oct 1939
Encyclicals
Rome
First encyclical of Pius XII at the outbreak of World War II; on the unity of human society.
19 Mar 1937
Encyclicals
Rome
On atheistic communism and the Church’s social teaching as the true remedy.
14 Mar 1937
Encyclicals
Rome / Germany
Encyclical smuggled into Nazi Germany; condemns racism and violations of the Concordat.
1936
Marian Apparition
Cimbres (Pesqueira), Pernambuco, Brazil
Bishop approved
1936
Marian Apparition
Wigratzbad, Germany
Bishop approved
1933
Marian Apparition
Banneux, Belgium
Bishop approved
1932
Marian Apparition
Beauraing, Belgium
Bishop approved
1931–1938
Apparition
Poland
Christ asks for the Divine Mercy image, feast, and chaplet.
1931–1938
Marian Apparition
Płock and Kraków, Poland
Holy See recognition
29 Jun 1931
Encyclicals
Rome
Against Fascist persecution of Catholic Action in Italy.
15 May 1931
Encyclicals
Rome
Forty years after Rerum Novarum: social justice, subsidiarity, and critique of unbridled capitalism and socialism.
31 Dec 1930
Encyclicals
Rome
On Christian marriage; rejects contraception and divorce contrary to divine law.
1930
Marian Apparition
Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
Bishop approved
1929
Secular
Rome
Vatican City State created; the Roman Question settled with Italy.
31 Dec 1929
Encyclicals
Rome
On Christian education of youth — rights of family, Church, and state.
6 Jan 1928
Encyclicals
Rome
On religious unity; cautions against indifferentism in ecumenical efforts of the age.
11 Dec 1925
Encyclicals
Rome
Institutes the feast of Christ the King and teaches His social kingship.
1922–1939
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1922 to 1939
23 Dec 1922
Encyclicals
Rome
First encyclical of Pius XI: true peace of Christ in the Kingdom of Christ.
23 May 1920
Encyclicals
Rome
On peace and Christian reconciliation after the Great War.
1918
Apparition
San Giovanni Rotondo, Italy
Visible wounds of Christ; lifelong mystical and sacramental ministry.
1917
Liturgy
Rome
The Pio-Benedictine Code states the grave duty to assist at Mass on Sundays and holydays of obligation.
1917
Secular
Palestine / Britain
Britain favors a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine.
1917
Marian Apparition
Fátima, Portugal
Holy See recognition
1916
Apparition
Fátima, Portugal
An angel prepares the three shepherd children before Our Lady’s appearances.
1916
Eucharistic Miracles
Fatima, Portugal, The Angel of Peace, Our Lady
Our Lady
1914–1922
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1914 to 1922
1914–1918
Secular
Europe / Middle East
Catastrophe of Christian nations; Benedict XV’s peace appeals; Ottoman collapse.
1 Nov 1914
Encyclicals
Rome
First encyclical amid World War I; appeals for peace and charity among nations.
1911–1913
Liturgy
Rome
Office and calendar reforms reshape how feasts relate to the Mass propers across the year.
1 Nov 1911
Liturgy
Rome
Reform of the Breviary and psalter reshapes how the Mass calendar and Office relate through the week.
8 Aug 1910
Liturgy
Rome
Quam singulari encourages children to receive Holy Communion once they reach the age of reason.
25 Aug 1910
Encyclicals
Rome
Letter to the French bishops on the Sillon movement and true Christian social action.
c. 1900–1950
Liturgy
Europe / Worldwide
Pastors and scholars promote fuller participation in the Mass and deeper understanding of the rites.
8 Sep 1907
Encyclicals
Rome
Condemns Modernism as the synthesis of all heresies and mandates safeguards in teaching.
1907
Eucharistic Miracles
Silla, Spain
Place miracle
11 Feb 1906
Encyclicals
Rome
Protests the French law of separation of Church and State.
1906
Eucharistic Miracles
Tumaco, Colombia
Place miracle
15 Apr 1905
Encyclicals
Rome
On the teaching of Christian doctrine and the duty of catechesis.
1904-1955
Eucharistic Miracles
Blessed Alexandrina Maria da Costa, Saints & Mystics
Saint / mystic
1903–1914
Popes
Rome
22 Nov 1903
Liturgy
Rome
Motu proprio on sacred music restores Gregorian chant and sets norms for music at Mass.
4 Oct 1903
Encyclicals
Rome
Programmatic encyclical: “to restore all things in Christ.”
1878–1903
Saints
Lucca, Italy
Passionist mystic of Lucca; letters of love for the Crucified and obedience under her director Fr. Germano.
1902-1981
Eucharistic Miracles
Servant of God Marthe Robin, Saints & Mystics
Saint / mystic
1902
Eucharistic Miracles
Morne-Rouge, Martinique
Place miracle
1902
Eucharistic Miracles
Saint-André de la Réunion, Reunion Islands
Place miracle
18 Jan 1901
Encyclicals
Rome
On Christian democracy and Catholic social action among the people.
1 Nov 1900
Encyclicals
Rome
On Jesus Christ the Redeemer as the center of history at the Holy Year.
1900
Marian Apparition
Donglu, Hebei, China
Bishop approved
25 May 1899
Encyclicals
Rome
Consecrates the human race to the Sacred Heart of Jesus at the turn of the century.
1898-1962
Eucharistic Miracles
Teresa Neumann, Saints & Mystics
Saint / mystic
9 May 1897
Encyclicals
Rome
On the Holy Spirit and devotion to the Third Person of the Trinity.
1873–1897
Doctors
Lisieux, France
Doctor of the Church; Story of a Soul and the “little way” of spiritual childhood — Carmelite of Lisieux, the Little Flower.
29 Jun 1896
Encyclicals
Rome
On the unity of the Church founded by Christ upon Peter and the Apostles.
18 Nov 1893
Encyclicals
Rome
On the study of Holy Scripture; opens a new era of Catholic biblical scholarship.
15 May 1891
Encyclicals
Rome
Foundational social encyclical on capital, labor, the family, and the just wage.
10 Jan 1890
Encyclicals
Rome
On the duties of Christians as citizens in the modern state.
1801–1890
Doctors
Oxford / Birmingham
Doctor of the Church; Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine and the Grammar of Assent — convert, cardinal, and teacher of conscience.
20 Jun 1888
Encyclicals
Rome
On true human liberty ordered to truth and the moral law.
1888
Eucharistic Miracles
Lourdes, France, Saint Bernadette, Our Lady
Our Lady
1 Nov 1885
Encyclicals
Rome
On the Christian constitution of states and the Church’s relation to civil society.
20 Apr 1884
Encyclicals
Rome
Condemns Freemasonry and secret societies opposed to the Church’s teaching.
29 Jun 1881
Encyclicals
Rome
On the origin of civil power and the duty of rulers and subjects under God.
10 Feb 1880
Encyclicals
Rome
On Christian marriage as a sacrament instituted by Christ and guarded by the Church.
4 Aug 1879
Encyclicals
Rome
Restores and recommends the philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas for the Church’s schools.
1879
Marian Apparition
Cap-de-la-Madeleine, Canada
Bishop approved
1879
Marian Apparition
Knock, Ireland
Bishop approved
1878–1903
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1878 to 1903
1877
Marian Apparition
Gietrzwałd, Poland
Bishop approved
1871
Marian Apparition
Pontmain, France
Bishop approved
18 Jul 1870
Dogmas
Vatican
The First Vatican Council (Pastor Aeternus) defines that the Roman Pontiff, when speaking ex cathedra on faith or morals, is preserved from error by the Holy Spirit.
1870
Secular
Rome
Italian unification completes; the “Roman Question” begins.
1869–1870
Councils
Vatican
Defines papal primacy and infallibility under defined conditions.
1869–1870
Fathers
Vatican
Defines papal primacy and infallibility under defined conditions.
1866-1912
Eucharistic Miracles
Blessed Mary of the Passion, Saints & Mystics
Saint / mystic
1859
Marian Apparition
Champion, United States
Bishop approved
1786–1859
Saints
Ars, France
The Curé of Ars — patron of parish priests; pastoral sermons and catechetical instructions that formed generations of the faithful.
1858
Marian Apparition
Lourdes, France
Bishop approved
8 Dec 1854
Dogmas
Rome
By the bull Ineffabilis Deus, Pius IX solemnly defines that the Blessed Virgin Mary was preserved from all stain of original sin from the first moment of her conception, by a singular grace of God in view of the merits of Jesus Christ.
1851
Marian Apparition
Casablanca, Chile
Bishop approved
1851
Marian Apparition
Roma, Italy
Bishop approved
c. 19th c.
Secular
Europe / West
Urbanization and labor reshape society; Rerum Novarum will answer later.
1850
Eucharistic Miracles
Servant of God Anne-Louise Lateau, Saints & Mystics
Saint / mystic
1848
Eucharistic Miracles
San Giovanni Bosco, Saints & Mystics
Saint / mystic
1846–1878
Popes
Rome
1846
Marian Apparition
La Salette-Fallavaux, France
Bishop approved
1831–1846
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1831 to 1846
1830
Eucharistic Miracles
Paris, France, Saint Catherine Labouré, Our Lady
Our Lady
1830
Marian Apparition
Paris, France
Bishop approved
1829–1830
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1829 to 1830
1824
Eucharistic Miracles
Onil, Spain
Place miracle
1823–1829
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1823 to 1829
1822
Eucharistic Miracles
Bordeaux, France
Place miracle
1818
Marian Apparition
Maipú, Chile
Bishop approved
1804–1815
Secular
Europe
Empire, Concordat with Rome, and the remaking of European borders.
1800–1823
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1800 to 1823
1798
Marian Apparition
La Vang, Vietnam
Under investigation
1797
Marian Apparition
Absam, Tirol, Austria
Bishop approved
1789
Secular
France
Dechristianization, martyrdoms, and the modern Church–state crisis in Europe.
1696–1787
Doctors
Naples / Pagani
Doctor of the Church; founder of the Redemptorists — The Glories of Mary and Uniformity with God’s Will; moral theologian and teacher of devotion.
1776
Secular
United States
New republic in the New World; religious liberty and church–state debates.
1775–1799
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1775 to 1799
1774-1824
Eucharistic Miracles
Blessed Anne Catherine Emmerich, Saints & Mystics
Saint / mystic
1772
Eucharistic Miracles
Patierno (Naples), Italy
Place miracle
1769–1774
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1769 to 1774
1758–1769
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1758 to 1769
1758
Marian Apparition
Fátima, Portugal
Bishop approved
c. 18th c.
Secular
Europe
Reason, critique of tradition, and new political ideals challenge Christian Europe.
c. 1740–1758
Liturgy
Rome
Scholar-pope Benedict XIV clarifies rubrics and feast rankings while defending the Roman Rite’s integrity.
1740–1758
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1740 to 1758
3 Dec 1740
Encyclicals
Rome
Often cited among the first modern papal encyclicals, urging bishops to pastoral vigilance.
1732
Eucharistic Miracles
Scala, Italy
Place miracle
1730–1740
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1730 to 1740
1730
Eucharistic Miracles
Siena, Italy
Place miracle
1724–1730
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1724 to 1730
1721–1724
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1721 to 1724
1717
Marian Apparition
Aparecida, São Paulo, Brazil
Approved devotion
1673–1716
Saints
France
Missionary and Marian doctor of consecration — True Devotion, Secret of Mary, and the Letter to the Friends of the Cross.
1700–1721
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1700 to 1721
1700
Marian Apparition
Arequipa, Peru
Bishop approved
1699
Secular
Sremski Karlovci
Ottomans cede Hungary and much of Croatia and Transylvania; the high tide of Ottoman advance in Europe recedes.
1697
Secular
Zenta (Senta)
Prince Eugene of Savoy routs the Ottomans in the Balkans; path to the Peace of Karlowitz.
1691–1700
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1691 to 1700
1689–1691
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1689 to 1691
1683
Secular
Vienna
Ottoman siege broken by the Holy League; Jan III Sobieski’s charge from the Kahlenberg turns the tide.
1682
Marian Apparition
San Miguel, El Salvador
Bishop approved
1676–1689
Popes
Rome
1674
Apparition
Paray-le-Monial, France
Vision of the Heart of Jesus burning with love amid the Eucharist.
1673–1675
Apparition
Paray-le-Monial, France
Christ reveals His Heart at Paray-le-Monial; First Fridays devotion.
1673–1675
Marian Apparition
Paray-le-Monial, France
Holy See recognition
1670–1676
Popes
Rome
17th-century head of the Catholic Church
1668
Eucharistic Miracles
Les Ulmes, France
Place miracle
1667–1669
Popes
Rome
17th-century head of the Catholic Church
1664
Marian Apparition
Saint-Étienne-le-Laus, France
Bishop approved
1664
Marian Apparition
Laus (região ligada à tradição italiana francófona histórica)
Bishop approved
1657
Eucharistic Miracles
Montserrat, Spain
Place miracle
1656
Eucharistic Miracles
Cava dei Tirreni, Italy
Place miracle
1655–1667
Popes
Rome
17th-century head of the Catholic Church
1652
Marian Apparition
Guanare, Venezuela
Approved devotion
1649
Eucharistic Miracles
Eten, Peru
Place miracle
1648
Secular
Westphalia
Ends the Thirty Years’ War; modern state system in Europe.
1644–1655
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1644 to 1655
1643
Eucharistic Miracles
Pressac, France
Place miracle
1640
Eucharistic Miracles
Calanda, Spain, Miguel-Juan Pellicer, Our Lady
Our Lady
1640
Eucharistic Miracles
Turin, Italy
Place miracle
1635
Marian Apparition
Cartago, Costa Rica
Bishop approved
2 Sep 1634
Liturgy
Rome
Another revised typical edition of the Tridentine Missal becomes the standard for subsequent centuries.
1631
Eucharistic Miracles
Dronero, Italy
Place miracle
1631
Marian Apparition
San Miguel del Milagro, Tlaxcala, Mexico
Bishop approved
1630
Eucharistic Miracles
Canosio, Italy
Place miracle
1630
Marian Apparition
Luján, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Bishop approved
1623–1644
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1623 to 1644
1567–1622
Doctors
Annecy / Geneva
Doctor of the Church; Introduction to the Devout Life — gentle guide to holiness for every state of life.
1621–1623
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1621 to 1623
1542–1621
Doctors
Rome / Capua
Doctor of the Church; Controversies and the Catechism — Jesuit cardinal of the Counter-Reformation.
1559–1619
Doctors
Brindisi / Europe
Doctor of the Church; Apostolic Doctor — Capuchin preacher, Scripture scholar, and diplomat of the Counter-Reformation.
1612
Marian Apparition
El Cobre, Cuba
Bishop approved
1610
Eucharistic Miracles
Rome, Italy
Place miracle
1608
Eucharistic Miracles
Faverney, France
Place miracle
1605–1621
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1605 to 1621
1605
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 1605
7 Jul 1604
Liturgy
Rome
A corrected typical edition of the Roman Missal replaces Pius V’s text for printers and churches.
1604
Eucharistic Miracles
Mogoro, Italy
Place miracle
1600
Marian Apparition
Las Tablas, Panama
Bishop approved
1597
Eucharistic Miracles
Alcalà, Spain
Place miracle
1521–1597
Doctors
Germany / Switzerland
Doctor of the Church; catechisms of the Counter-Reformation — Jesuit apostle of Germany.
1594
Marian Apparition
El Cisne, Loja, Ecuador
Bishop approved
1594
Marian Apparition
Quito, Ecuador
Bishop approved
1592–1605
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1592 to 1605
1591
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 1591
1542–1591
Doctors
Spain
Doctor of the Church; Ascent of Mount Carmel, Dark Night of the Soul, and the Spiritual Canticle — Carmelite reformer and mystic poet.
1590–1591
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1590 to 1591
1590
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 1590
1589
Eucharistic Miracles
Saint Germaine Cousin (Pibrac), Saints & Mystics
Saint / mystic
1588
Liturgy
Rome
Sixtus V creates the Congregation to oversee the liturgy, canonizations, and sacred rites of the Latin Church.
1586
Marian Apparition
Chiquinquirá, Colombia
Bishop approved
1585–1590
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1585 to 1590
1515–1582
Doctors
Ávila / Spain
Doctor of the Church; Interior Castle, Way of Perfection, and the reform of Carmel — a teacher of prayer and the mystical life.
1572–1585
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1572 to 1585
1572
Eucharistic Miracles
Gorkum-El Escorial, Spain
Place miracle
1571
Secular
Gulf of Patras
Holy League fleet under Don John of Austria defeats the Ottoman navy; Pius V institutes Our Lady of the Rosary.
14 Jul 1570
Liturgy
Rome
The Tridentine Missal is mandated for the Latin Church, except for rites with at least two centuries of continuous use.
1570
Eucharistic Miracles
Veroli, Italy
Place miracle
1570
Marian Apparition
Vailankanni, Tamil Nadu, India
Bishop approved
1499–1569
Doctors
Andalusia
Doctor of the Church; Audi, filia and apostolic preaching in sixteenth-century Spain.
1568
Eucharistic Miracles
Alcoy, Spain
Place miracle
1566–1572
Popes
Rome
1566
Liturgy
Rome
The Catechism of the Council of Trent teaches the faithful the meaning of the Mass and Holy Communion.
1565
Secular
Malta
Knights Hospitaller under Jean de Valette hold the island against Suleiman’s fleet and army.
1562–1563
Liturgy
Trent
Trent defends the sacrificial nature of the Mass and calls for a purified, uniform Roman Missal.
1560–1565
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1559 to 1565
1560
Eucharistic Miracles
Morrovalle, Italy
Place miracle
1491–1556
Saints
Spain / Rome
Founder of the Society of Jesus; the Spiritual Exercises and Autobiography — school of discernment and finding God in all things.
1555–1559
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1555 to 1559
1555
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 1555
1551
Dogmas
Trent
Trent reaffirms that in the Eucharist the whole Christ is truly, really, and substantially present under the appearances of bread and wine.
1550-1568
Eucharistic Miracles
Saint Stanislaus Kostka, Saints & Mystics
Saint / mystic
1550–1555
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1550 to 1555
1547
Dogmas
Trent
Trent teaches that justification is God’s gracious gift through Christ, received by faith and Baptism, and that man truly cooperates under grace.
1547
Dogmas
Trent
Trent confirms that Christ instituted seven sacraments of the New Law: Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony.
1546
Dogmas
Trent
The Council of Trent solemnly lists the inspired books of the Old and New Testaments received by the Church as the biblical canon.
1546
Dogmas
Trent
Trent defines that Adam’s sin wounded human nature and is transmitted to all, and that Baptism remits original sin.
1545–1563
Councils
Trent
Catholic Reformation: Scripture and Tradition, the sacraments, seminary reform.
1545–1563
Fathers
Trent
Catholic Reformation: Scripture and Tradition, the sacraments, seminary reform.
1541
Marian Apparition
Tlaxcala, Mexico
Bishop approved
1535
Eucharistic Miracles
Asti, Italy
Place miracle
1534–1549
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1534 to 1549
1533
Eucharistic Miracles
Marseille-En-Beauvais, France
Place miracle
1533
Eucharistic Miracles
Ponferrada, Spain
Place miracle
1531
Eucharistic Miracles
Guadalupe, Mexico, Juan Diego, Our Lady
Our Lady
1531
Marian Apparition
Mexico City, Mexico
Holy See recognition
1529
Secular
Vienna
Suleiman fails to take the Habsburg capital; Ottoman expansion into Western Europe is checked for a time.
1526
Secular
Mohács, Hungary
Hungarian army destroyed; King Louis II dies; much of Hungary falls under Ottoman rule.
1523–1534
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1523 to 1534
1522–1523
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1522 to 1523
1521
Secular
Belgrade
Suleiman the Magnificent opens the path into Hungary and Central Europe.
1517
Secular
Wittenberg
Protestant Reformation begins; Catholic reform answers at Trent.
1517
Eucharistic Miracles
Salzano, Italy
Place miracle
1513–1521
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1513 to 1521
1512–1517
Councils
Rome
Church reform on the eve of the Reformation; condemns conciliarism.
1512–1517
Fathers
Rome
Church reform on the eve of the Reformation; condemns conciliarism.
1447–1510
Saints
Genoa, Italy
Mystic of divine love and hospital servant of Genoa; Spiritual Dialogue and Treatise on Purgatory.
1503–1513
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1503 to 1513
1503
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 1503
1500
Marian Apparition
Higüey, Dominican Republic
Bishop approved
1498
Marian Apparition
Sernancelhe, Portugal
Bishop approved
1492–1503
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1492 to 1503
1492
Secular
Atlantic / Americas
Atlantic world opens; evangelization and empire reshape global history.
1492
Secular
Spain
Alhambra Decree; Sephardic diaspora after the Reconquista.
1492
Secular
Granada, Spain
Last Muslim kingdom in Spain surrenders to Ferdinand and Isabella; the Reconquista ends.
1484–1492
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1484 to 1492
c. 1474
Liturgy
Italy / Europe
Printing spreads standard Mass texts quickly, preparing the way for a uniform Tridentine edition.
1472
Eucharistic Miracles
Volterra, Italy
Place miracle
1471–1484
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1471 to 1484
1464–1471
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1464 to 1471
1461
Eucharistic Miracles
La Rochelle, France
Place miracle
1458–1464
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1458 to 1464
1456
Secular
Belgrade
John Hunyadi and St. John of Capistrano repel Mehmed II; the noon Angelus recalls the victory.
1455–1458
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1455 to 1458
1453
Secular
Constantinople
Mehmed II takes the city; the Byzantine Empire ends; Ottoman power dominates the eastern Mediterranean.
1453
Eucharistic Miracles
Turin, Italy
Place miracle
c. 1450
Secular
Mainz
Moveable type multiplies books, Bibles, and controversy across Europe.
1447–1455
Popes
Rome
Head of Catholic Church from 1447 to 1455
1447
Eucharistic Miracles
Ettiswil, Switzerland
Place miracle
1444
Secular
Varna
Władysław III of Poland and Hungary dies facing Murad II; a major Christian reverse in the Balkans.
1439–1449
Popes
Lausanne
Antipope · Lausanne. Last major historical antipope.
1439
Dogmas
Florence
The Council of Florence solemnly teaches the Filioque: the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from the Father and the Son as from one principle.
1439
Dogmas
Florence
Florence affirms that souls dying in God’s grace but still imperfectly purified undergo purifying punishment, and that the living may aid them by prayer, Mass, and alms.
1434
Marian Apparition
Salamanca, Spain
Bishop approved
1433
Eucharistic Miracles
Avignon, France
Place miracle
1431–1447
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1431 to 1447
1431–1445
Councils
Florence
Union decrees with Eastern churches; teaching on the Filioque and purgatory.
1431–1445
Fathers
Florence
Union decrees with Eastern churches; teaching on the Filioque and purgatory.
1430–1437
Popes
Avignon
Antipope · Avignon line. Another claimant using the same name in the disputed line.
1430
Eucharistic Miracles
Dijon, France
Place miracle
1429
Eucharistic Miracles
Alkmaar, Netherlands
Place miracle
1427
Eucharistic Miracles
Zaragoza, Spain
Place miracle
1424–1429
Popes
Avignon
Antipope · Avignon line. Avignon claimant; disputed line.
1423–1429
Popes
Avignon
Antipope · Avignon line. Avignon claimant after Benedict XIII.
1421
Eucharistic Miracles
Bergen, Netherlands
Place miracle
1420
Eucharistic Miracles
Guadalupe, Spain
Place miracle
1417–1431
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1417 to 1431
1417
Eucharistic Miracles
Erding, Germany
Place miracle
1417
Eucharistic Miracles
St. Nicholas of Flue, Saints & Mystics
Saint / mystic
1414–1418
Councils
Constance
Ends the Western Schism; elects Martin V.
1414–1418
Fathers
Constance
Ends the Western Schism; elects Martin V.
1412
Eucharistic Miracles
Bagno di Romagna, Italy
Place miracle
1412
Eucharistic Miracles
Herentals, Belgium
Place miracle
1411
Eucharistic Miracles
Ludbreg, Croatia
Place miracle
1411
Eucharistic Miracles
Weiten-Raxendorf, Austria
Place miracle
1410–1415
Popes
Pisa
Antipope · Pisa line. Pisan claimant; reclassified as antipope.
1409–1410
Popes
Pisa
Antipope · Pisa line. Pisan claimant; reclassified as antipope.
1406–1415
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1406 to 1415
1405
Eucharistic Miracles
Bois-Seigneur-Isaac, Belgium
Place miracle
1404–1406
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1404 to 1406
1400
Eucharistic Miracles
Boxmeer, Netherlands
Place miracle
1399
Eucharistic Miracles
Poznan, Poland
Place miracle
1396
Secular
Nicopolis (Bulgaria)
Crusade of Western and Hungarian forces crushed by Bayezid I on the Danube.
1394–1423
Popes
Avignon
Antipope · Avignon line. Avignon claimant during the Western Schism.
1392
Eucharistic Miracles
Moncada, Spain
Place miracle
1389–1404
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1389 to 1404
1389
Secular
Kosovo
Serbian and allied forces meet the Ottomans on the Field of Blackbirds; both leaders fall; Ottoman pressure on the Balkans hardens.
1384
Eucharistic Miracles
Seefeld, Austria
Place miracle
1383
Eucharistic Miracles
Wilsnack, Germany
Place miracle
1380
Eucharistic Miracles
Boxtel-Hoogstraten, Netherlands
Place miracle
1347–1380
Doctors
Siena / Rome
Doctor of the Church; the Dialogue and letters — Dominican tertiary, mystic, and counselor of popes in the age of Avignon and the Schism.
1378–1394
Popes
Avignon
Antipope · Avignon line. Avignon claimant during the Western Schism.
1378–1389
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1378 to 1389
1374
Eucharistic Miracles
Middleburg-Lovanio, Belgium
Place miracle
1374
Eucharistic Miracles
Liège, Belgium
Place miracle
1371–1378
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1370 to 1378
1370
Eucharistic Miracles
Cimballa, Spain
Place miracle
1370
Eucharistic Miracles
Brussels, Belgium
Place miracle
1362–1370
Popes
Rome
1356
Eucharistic Miracles
Macerata, Italy
Place miracle
1354
Secular
Gallipoli
Ottoman foothold at Gallipoli; the long advance into the Balkans begins.
1353–1362
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1352 to 1362
1348
Eucharistic Miracles
Alboraya-Almacéra, Spain
Place miracle
1347-1380
Eucharistic Miracles
Saint Catherine of Siena, Saints & Mystics
Saint / mystic
1347–1351
Secular
Europe
Plague devastates Christendom; shapes piety, art, and social order.
1345
Eucharistic Miracles
Amsterdam, Netherlands
Place miracle
1345
Eucharistic Miracles
Krakow, Poland
Place miracle
1342–1352
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1342 to 1352
1342
Eucharistic Miracles
Stiphout, Netherlands
Place miracle
1336
Dogmas
Avignon
By the constitution Benedictus Deus, Benedict XII teaches that the souls of the just see the divine essence face to face after death (and purification, if needed), before the general resurrection.
1335–1342
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1334 to 1342
1331
Eucharistic Miracles
Blanot, France
Place miracle
1330
Eucharistic Miracles
Cascia, Italy
Place miracle
1330
Eucharistic Miracles
Walldürn, Germany
Place miracle
1328–1330
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition to John XXII.
1317
Eucharistic Miracles
Herkenrode-Hasselt, Belgium
Place miracle
1316–1334
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1316 to 1334
1311–1312
Councils
Vienne
Suppresses the Knights Templar; treats of Church reform and the crusade.
1311–1312
Fathers
Vienne
Suppresses the Knights Templar; treats of Church reform and the crusade.
1310
Eucharistic Miracles
Fiecht, Austria
Place miracle
1305–1314
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1305 to 1314
1303–1304
Popes
Rome
1256–1302
Saints
Helfta, Saxony
Benedictine mystic of Helfta; the Preces Gertrudianae tradition of prayers to the Heart of Jesus, the Trinity, and the holy souls.
c. 13th–15th c.
Liturgy
Western Europe
Priests increasingly use a single book with all Mass texts — the ancestor of the printed Roman Missal.
1300
Eucharistic Miracles
Breda-Niervaart, Netherlands
Place miracle
1300
Eucharistic Miracles
O'Cebreiro, Spain
Place miracle
1297
Eucharistic Miracles
Gerona, Spain
Place miracle
1295–1303
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1294 to 1303
1294
Popes
Rome
1294
Eucharistic Miracles
Gruaro (Valvasone), Italy
Place miracle
1294
Marian Apparition
Loreto, Italy
Bishop approved
1291
Secular
Acre, Holy Land
Mamluks take the last major Crusader stronghold; the Latin East ends.
1290
Eucharistic Miracles
Glotowo, Poland
Place miracle
1290
Eucharistic Miracles
Paris, France
Place miracle
1288–1292
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1288 to 1292
1285–1287
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1285 to 1287
1281–1285
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1281 to 1285
1280
Eucharistic Miracles
Kranenburg, Germany
Place miracle
c. 1200–1280
Doctors
Cologne / Paris
Doctor of the Church; teacher of Aquinas — natural philosophy and theology in the Dominican schools.
1277–1280
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1277 to 1280
1276–1277
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1276 to 1277
1276
Popes
Rome
1276
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 1276
1274
Councils
Lyons
Attempted reunion with the East; death of St. Thomas Aquinas en route.
1221–1274
Doctors
Paris / Lyon
Doctor Seraphicus; Journey of the Mind Into God — Franciscan theology and mystical ascent.
1274
Fathers
Lyons
Attempted reunion with the East; death of St. Thomas Aquinas en route.
1225–1274
Doctors
Italy / France
Doctor Angelicus; Summa Theologiae and the synthesis of faith and reason in the medieval schools.
1273-1280
Eucharistic Miracles
Offida, Italy
Place miracle
1271–1276
Popes
Rome
1265–1268
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1265 to 1268
1264
Liturgy
Orvieto / Rome
Urban IV extends the feast of the Body of Christ to the universal Church, fostering Eucharistic devotion outside Mass.
1264
Eucharistic Miracles
Bolsena, Italy
Place miracle
1261–1264
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1261 to 1264
1257
Eucharistic Miracles
Neuvy Saint Sepulcre, France
Place miracle
c. 1256
Liturgy
Western Europe
The Order of Preachers consolidates its own Mass and Office use, later protected as a rite of venerable antiquity.
1255
Eucharistic Miracles
Regensburg, Germany
Place miracle
1254–1261
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1254 to 1261
1254
Eucharistic Miracles
Douai, France
Place miracle
1251
Eucharistic Miracles
S. John of the Abbesses, Spain
Place miracle
c. 13th c.
Secular
Europe
Paris, Bologna, Oxford — scholastic learning at the heart of Christendom.
1247
Eucharistic Miracles
Santarém, Portugal
Place miracle
1245
Councils
Lyons
Deposes Frederick II; seeks aid for the Holy Land and the Eastern Empire.
1245
Fathers
Lyons
Deposes Frederick II; seeks aid for the Holy Land and the Eastern Empire.
1243–1254
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1243 to 1254
1241
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 1241
1240
Eucharistic Miracles
Saint Clare of Assisi, Italy
Place miracle
1239
Eucharistic Miracles
Daroca, Spain
Place miracle
1231
Eucharistic Miracles
Caravaca de la Cruz, Spain
Place miracle
1195–1231
Doctors
Padua / Portugal
Doctor of the Church; Evangelical Doctor — Franciscan preacher whose sermons and Scripture teaching shaped popular devotion.
1230-1595
Eucharistic Miracles
Florence, Italy
Place miracle
1228
Eucharistic Miracles
Alatri, Italy
Place miracle
1227–1241
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1227 to 1241
1227
Eucharistic Miracles
Rimini, Italy
Place miracle
1181–1226
Saints
Assisi, Italy
Founder of the Friars Minor; Rules, Testament, Admonitions, and the Canticle of the Sun — poverty, peace, and praise of the Creator.
1224-1274
Eucharistic Miracles
Saint Thomas Aquinas, Saints & Mystics
Saint / mystic
1222-1465
Eucharistic Miracles
Meerssen, Netherlands
Place miracle
c. 13th c.
Liturgy
Rome
The papal court’s missal becomes a model for Franciscan and later Roman books before Trent.
1216–1227
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1216 to 1227
1216
Eucharistic Miracles
Benningen, Germany
Place miracle
1215
Dogmas
Rome
The Fourth Lateran Council defines that in the Eucharist the bread and wine are truly changed into the Body and Blood of Christ.
1215
Liturgy
Rome
The Fourth Lateran Council requires the faithful to confess and receive Communion at least at Easter.
1215
Secular
Runnymede, England
English barons limit royal power; a landmark of Western constitutional tradition.
1215
Councils
Rome
Defines transubstantiation; reforms clergy and the sacraments; calls a crusade.
1215
Fathers
Rome
Defines transubstantiation; reforms clergy and the sacraments; calls a crusade.
1212
Secular
Andalusia, Spain
Christian kings of Castile, Aragon, and Navarre break Almohad power in Spain.
1203
Eucharistic Miracles
Bruges, Belgium
Place miracle
c. 12th–13th c.
Liturgy
Western Europe
The custom of elevating the consecrated Host for the people’s adoration becomes widespread in the West.
1200
Marian Apparition
La Rioja, Spain
Bishop approved
1198–1216
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1198 to 1216
1194
Eucharistic Miracles
Augsburg, Germany
Place miracle
1191–1198
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1191 to 1198
1188–1191
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1187 to 1191
1187
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 1187
1185–1187
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1185 to 1187
1182
Marian Apparition
Nazaré, Portugal
Bishop approved
1181–1185
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1181 to 1185
1179–1180
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition to Alexander III; not the later canonical Innocent III.
1179
Councils
Rome
Requires a two-thirds majority of cardinals for a papal election; reforms against Waldensians and Cathars.
1098–1179
Doctors
Bingen / Rupertsberg
Doctor of the Church; Scivias and visionary theology — Benedictine abbess, composer, and prophet.
1179
Fathers
Rome
Requires a two-thirds majority of cardinals for a papal election; reforms against Waldensians and Cathars.
1171
Eucharistic Miracles
Ferrara, Italy
Place miracle
1168–1178
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition to Alexander III; not the later canonical Callixtus III.
1164–1168
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition to Alexander III.
1159–1181
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1159 to 1181
1159–1164
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Imperial antipope in opposition to Alexander III.
c. 1070–1157
Saints
Igny, France
Blessed Cistercian abbot of Igny, disciple of St. Bernard; liturgical sermons for the year — Advent to All Saints.
1154–1159
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1154 to 1159
1153–1154
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1153 to 1154
1090–1153
Doctors
Clairvaux
Doctor of the Church; On Loving God and the Cistercian renewal — mellifluous doctor of charity.
1145–1153
Popes
Rome
1144–1145
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1144 to 1145
1143–1144
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1143 to 1144
1139
Councils
Rome
Ends the schism of Anacletus; legislates against clerical incontinence and simony.
1139
Fathers
Rome
Ends the schism of Anacletus; legislates against clerical incontinence and simony.
1138
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Successor in the Anacletus line.
1130–1143
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1130 to 1143
1130–1138
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition to Innocent II.
1125–1130
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1124 to 1130
1125
Eucharistic Miracles
Bettbrunn, Germany
Place miracle
1124
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Claimant after Callixtus II; not the later canonical Celestine II.
1123
Councils
Rome
Confirms the Concordat of Worms; reforms investiture and clerical discipline.
1123
Fathers
Rome
Confirms the Concordat of Worms; reforms investiture and clerical discipline.
1119–1124
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1119 to 1124
1118–1121
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition to Gelasius II and Callixtus II.
1118–1119
Popes
Rome
1033–1109
Doctors
Bec / Canterbury
Doctor of the Church; Proslogion and Cur Deus Homo — faith seeking understanding.
1105–1111
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition to Paschal II.
1101
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In the Clement III line.
1100–1101
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In the Clement III line.
c. 12th c. onward
Liturgy
Grande Chartreuse / Order
The Carthusian Order preserves a distinctive austere Mass and Office use of great antiquity.
c. 11th–13th c.
Liturgy
Western Europe
Daily private Masses multiply; missals combining sacramentary, lectionary, and gradual become common for priests.
1099–1118
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1099 to 1118
1099
Secular
Jerusalem
Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem established in the Holy Land.
1095
Secular
Clermont
Urban II at Clermont calls for the liberation of the Holy Land.
1088–1099
Popes
Rome
1086–1087
Popes
Rome
1080–1100
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Antipope Guibert; in opposition to Gregory VII and successors.
1073–1085
Popes
Rome
1007–1072
Doctors
Ravenna / Fonte Avellana
Doctor of the Church; Liber Gomorrhianus and letters — Benedictine reformer, cardinal, and fierce preacher of clerical discipline.
1071
Secular
Anatolia
Seljuk victory opens Anatolia to Turkish settlement and weakens Byzantium before the Crusades.
1066
Secular
England
Battle of Hastings; Anglo-Norman realm reshapes the British Isles.
1061–1073
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1061 to 1073
1061–1072
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Antipope Cadalus; in opposition to Alexander II.
1059–1061
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1059 to 1061
1058–1059
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Excluded from canonical list and modeled here as antipope.
1057–1058
Popes
Rome
1055–1057
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1055 to 1057
1054
Secular
Constantinople / Rome
Legates of Leo IX and Patriarch Michael Cerularius exchange mutual excommunications; the breach between Rome and Constantinople deepens into lasting schism.
1049–1054
Popes
Rome
1048
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 1048
1047–1048
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church variously from 1032 to 1048
1047
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1046 to 1047
1045–1047
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1045 to 1046
1045
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 1045
1045
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church variously from 1032 to 1048
1032–1044
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church variously from 1032 to 1048
1024–1032
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1024 to 1032
1014–1018
Secular
Balkans
The Macedonian emperor ends the First Bulgarian Empire; Byzantium reaches a medieval high-water mark in the Balkans.
1012–1024
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1012 to 1024
1012
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition to Benedict VIII; not the later canonical Gregory VI.
1010
Eucharistic Miracles
Ivorra, Spain
Place miracle
1009–1012
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1009 to 1012
1003–1009
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 1004 to 1009
1003
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 1003
c. 951–1003
Doctors
Narek, Armenia
Doctor of the Church; Book of Lamentations — Armenian mystical prayer and theology.
c. 10th–12th c.
Liturgy
Cluny / Western Europe
Cluny’s solemn monastic Mass and Office radiate ceremonial and musical norms across Latin Christendom.
c. 10th–11th c.
Liturgy
Western Europe
Psalm 42 and the Confiteor open the Mass in the medieval Roman–Frankish Ordo still printed in 1962.
c. 1000
Secular
Central Europe
Baptism and coronation of rulers in Hungary, Poland, and neighboring lands.
999–1003
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 999 to 1003
997–998
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Antipope whose numbering affected later John numbering.
996–999
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 996 to 999
988
Secular
Kyiv
Prince Vladimir accepts Byzantine Christianity; Kyiv and the Rus’ enter the Orthodox world centered on Constantinople.
985–996
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 985 to 996
984–985
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Antipope whose numbering affected later Boniface numbering.
983–984
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 983 to 984
974–983
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 974 to 983
974
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Antipope whose numbering affected later Boniface numbering.
973–974
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 973 to 974
965–972
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 965 to 972
964–965
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 964 to 965
964
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 964
955–964
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 955 to 964
946–955
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 946 to 955
942–946
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 942 to 946
939–942
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 939 to 942
936–939
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 936 to 939
931–935
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 931 to 935
929–931
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 929 to 931
928
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 928 to 929
914–928
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 914 to 928
913–914
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 913 to 914
911–913
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 911 to 913
904–911
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 904 to 911
903–904
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Formerly treated by some lists as pope; removed from the official succession.
903–904
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 903
900–903
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 900 to 903
c. 9th–11th c.
Liturgy
Western Europe
Private prayers at the offering of bread and wine enrich the Roman Ordo Missae in Frankish and later Roman books.
898–900
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 898 to 900
897
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 897
897
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 897
896–897
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 896 to 897
896
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 896
891–896
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 891 to 896
885–891
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 885 to 891
884–885
Popes
Rome
882–884
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 882 to 884
7 June 879
Secular
Croatia / Rome
Pope John VIII blesses Duke Branimir and the Croatian people, affirming their communion with Rome after earlier evangelization from the 7th century.
872–882
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 872 to 882
869–870
Councils
Constantinople
Settles the Photian controversy; last of the councils received by both East and West before the schism.
869–870
Fathers
Constantinople
Settles the Photian controversy; last of the councils received by both East and West before the schism.
867–872
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 867 to 872
863–867
Secular
Constantinople / Rome
Conflict over Patriarch Photius and jurisdiction in Bulgaria strains communion between Rome and Constantinople — a foreshadowing of 1054.
c. 862–885
Secular
Great Moravia
Byzantine brothers bring the Gospel and a Slavic liturgy to Moravia; their work seeds the conversion of the Slavs.
858–867
Popes
Rome
855–858
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 855 to 858
855
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition to Benedict III.
c. 9th c.
Liturgy
Carolingian Empire
Gallican and Roman elements merge; private priestly prayers and expanded ceremonial enter the Roman Mass books.
847–855
Popes
Rome
846
Secular
Rome
Muslim raiders sack St. Peter’s and St. Paul’s Outside the Walls; Leo IV later fortifies the Leonine City.
844–847
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 844 to 847
844
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Claimant against Sergius II; not the later canonical John VIII.
843
Secular
Constantinople
Under Empress Theodora, iconoclasm is finally ended in Byzantium; the Sunday of Orthodoxy commemorates the restoration of the holy images.
827–844
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 827 to 844
827
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 827
824–827
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 824 to 827
817–824
Popes
Rome
816–817
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 816 to 817
c. 800
Liturgy
Carolingian court
Frankish scholars expand the Roman sacramentary with formularies needed for pastoral life north of the Alps.
c. medieval
Liturgy
Western Europe
In the Roman Rite the Canon is long recited silently by the priest, with the people’s participation through signs and devotion.
800
Secular
Rome
Leo III crowns Charles in St. Peter’s; a Western imperial title rivals Constantinople’s claim to sole Roman emperorship.
796–816
Popes
Rome
c. late 8th c.
Liturgy
Rome / Aachen
Under Charlemagne, a Roman sacramentary associated with St. Gregory the Great shapes Frankish liturgical books.
787
Dogmas
Nicaea
The Second Council of Nicaea restores and defines the legitimate veneration of icons, distinguishing honor given to images from worship due to God alone.
787
Councils
Nicaea
Restores the veneration of holy images.
787
Fathers
Nicaea
Restores the veneration of holy images.
c. 785–790
Liturgy
Rome / Aachen
Pope Hadrian I sends a Gregorian sacramentary north; it becomes the core of Carolingian Mass books.
772–795
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 772 to 795
768–772
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 768 to 772
768
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Claimant installed briefly during the same crisis.
767–768
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition before Stephen III.
757–767
Popes
Rome
752–757
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 752 to 757
751
Secular
Ravenna
Lombards take Ravenna; Byzantine political power in northern Italy ends. The papacy turns more decisively toward the Franks.
c. 5th–8th c.
Liturgy
Gaul
Non-Roman Western liturgies in Gaul leave traces in later Frankish–Roman books before largely yielding to Roman use.
c. 8th c.
Liturgy
Rome / Frankish lands
A major Roman–Frankish sacramentary tradition gathers Mass formularies used across the West.
750 D.C.
Eucharistic Miracles
Lanciano, Italy
Place miracle
c. 675–749
Doctors
Damascus / Mar Saba
Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith; defense of icons.
741–752
Popes
Rome
c. 673–735
Doctors
Jarrow
Ecclesiastical History of the English People; biblical teacher.
732
Secular
Gaul
Charles Martel halts a major Muslim advance into Frankish Gaul.
731–741
Popes
Rome
c. 726–730
Secular
Constantinople
Emperor Leo III forbids the veneration of icons; a century of conflict over sacred images opens in the East.
c. 722
Secular
Asturias, Spain
Asturian victory traditionally marks the beginning of the Reconquista in the north of Spain.
717–718
Secular
Constantinople
Leo III and the city’s defenses, with Greek fire and a harsh winter, turn back the Umayyad assault — a decisive check on Arab advance into Europe.
715–731
Popes
Rome
711–718
Secular
Iberia
Umayyad armies cross from North Africa; Visigothic Spain falls after Guadalete. Al-Andalus begins.
708–715
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 708 to 715
c. 708
Apparition
Normandy, France
Bishop Aubert commanded to build a shrine on the tidal mount.
708
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 708
c. 708
Marian Apparition
Mont Saint-Michel, France
Approved devotion
705–707
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 705 to 707
701–705
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 701 to 705
c. 7th–8th c.
Liturgy
Rome
Detailed ceremonial directions for a solemn papal Mass become a model for the Western Ordo Missae.
687–701
Popes
Rome
687
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Claimant during the disputed election after Conon.
687
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Claimant during the disputed election after Conon.
686–687
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 686 to 687
685–686
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 685 to 686
684–685
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 684 to 685
682–683
Popes
Rome
681
Dogmas
Constantinople
The Third Council of Constantinople teaches that Christ has a divine will and a human will, in perfect harmony — rejecting monothelitism.
680–681
Councils
Constantinople
Affirms two wills in Christ; rejects monothelitism.
680–681
Fathers
Constantinople
Affirms two wills in Christ; rejects monothelitism.
678–681
Popes
Rome
676–678
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 676 to 678
672–676
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 672 to 676
c. 580–662
Fathers
Constantinople
Two wills in Christ; suffering for Chalcedonian faith.
657–672
Popes
Rome
656–657
Popes
Rome
649–655
Popes
Rome
c. 579–649
Fathers
Mount Sinai
Ladder of Divine Ascent; Sinai monastic wisdom.
642–649
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 642 to 649
639–642
Secular
Egypt
Alexandria and the Nile valley fall to the Rashidun caliphate; Byzantium loses its Egyptian granary and the ancient see of Alexandria.
640–642
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 640 to 642
640
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 640
638
Secular
Jerusalem
The Holy City passes under Islamic rule; Christian and Jewish communities remain.
636
Secular
Syria
Arab victory ends Byzantine rule in Syria; the Levant opens to the caliphate.
c. 560–636
Doctors
Seville
Etymologies; last of the Western Fathers in many reckonings.
c. 629–630
Secular
Jerusalem
After defeating the Persians, Emperor Heraclius returns the True Cross to Jerusalem — a triumph celebrated in East and West.
626
Secular
Constantinople
While Heraclius campaigns in the East, the capital holds. Tradition links the city’s deliverance to the Mother of God and the Akathist hymn.
625–638
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 625 to 638
622
Secular
Arabia
Muhammad’s migration to Medina; centuries of encounter with Christian lands begin.
619–625
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 619 to 625
615–618
Popes
Rome
614
Secular
Jerusalem
Sasanian forces capture the Holy City; the True Cross is carried into Persia. A devastation remembered across Christendom.
608–615
Popes
Rome
607
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church in 607
604–606
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 604 to 606
c. 540–604
Doctors
Rome
Pastoral Care; Dialogues; Moralia; doctor and pope.
c. 590–604
Liturgy
Rome
Gregory organizes Roman chant and liturgical practice; later ages link the Roman Canon and sacramentary to his name.
c. 6th–11th c.
Liturgy
Spain
The ancient liturgy of Spain continues in Toledo and beyond, distinct from the Roman Missal.
c. 536–c. 594
Fathers
Antioch
Ecclesiastical History — church history from Ephesus into the late sixth century.
590–604
Popes
Rome
Pastoral care, Gregorian chant tradition, mission to the English.
c. 590
Marian Apparition
Rome (Castel Sant'Angelo), Italy
Approved devotion
c. 485–c. 585
Fathers
Squillace
Institutions of Divine and Secular Learning; Vivarium monastic library.
579–590
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 579 to 590
575–579
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 575 to 579
568
Secular
Italy
Alboin’s Lombards overrun the peninsula; Byzantine Italy shrinks to Ravenna, Rome, and coastal strongholds.
561–574
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 561 to 574
556–561
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 556 to 561
553
Councils
Constantinople
Condemns the Three Chapters; reaffirms Chalcedon.
553
Fathers
Constantinople
Condemns the Three Chapters; reaffirms Chalcedon.
c. 6th–7th c.
Liturgy
Rome / Verona
The oldest surviving Roman sacramentary collection preserves early Mass prayers attributed to the Leonine tradition.
c. 480–547
Fathers
Monte Cassino
Rule of St. Benedict; father of Western monasticism.
533–554
Secular
Africa / Italy
Belisarius and Narses reclaim North Africa from the Vandals and much of Italy from the Ostrogoths; Byzantine rule returns to Rome and Ravenna.
537–555
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 537 to 555
27 Dec 537
Secular
Constantinople
After the Nika revolt, Justinian rebuilds the Great Church of Holy Wisdom — the architectural heart of Byzantine Christendom.
536–537
Popes
Rome
535–536
Popes
Rome
533–535
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 533 to 535
c. 467–533
Fathers
Ruspe
North African bishop; grace and the Trinity after Augustine.
530–532
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 530 to 532
530
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition to Boniface II.
527–565
Secular
Constantinople
Emperor Justinian codifies Roman law; the Digest and Code shape later Christian Europe.
526–530
Popes
Rome
c. 480–524
Fathers
Rome / Pavia
Consolation of Philosophy; translator of Aristotle — bridge of antiquity and the Middle Ages.
523–526
Popes
Rome
514–523
Popes
Rome
498–514
Popes
Rome
498–506
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition to Symmachus.
496–498
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 496 to 498
d. c. 496
Fathers
Marseille
De Viris Illustribus; continuation of Jerome’s catalog of writers.
492–496
Popes
Rome
c. 490
Apparition
Monte Gargano, Italy
Archangel Michael indicates the cave sanctuary of Monte Sant’Angelo.
c. 490
Marian Apparition
Monte Sant'Angelo (Monte Gargano), Italy
Approved devotion
483–492
Popes
Rome
c. 400–c. 480
Fathers
Marseille
On the Government of God — providence and judgment in the fall of the West.
476
Secular
Italy
Deposition of Romulus Augustulus; imperial authority in the West ends. The Roman Empire continues at Constantinople.
468–483
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 468 to 483
461–468
Popes
Rome
c. 400–461
Doctors
Rome
Tome of Leo; Council of Chalcedon; doctor and pope.
c. 393–457
Fathers
Cyrrhus
Church historian and biblical commentator; Eranistes.
455
Secular
Rome
Gaiseric’s Vandals plunder Rome; the Western Empire nears its end.
c. 390–c. 455
Fathers
Rome / Aquitaine
Defender of Augustine on grace; chronicle and anti-Pelagian writings.
451
Dogmas
Chalcedon
The Council of Chalcedon defines that Jesus Christ is true God and true man — one Person in two natures, without confusion or separation.
451
Secular
Gaul
Aëtius and allies check Attila’s Huns in Gaul; Leo the Great later meets Attila near Rome.
451
Councils
Chalcedon
Defines Christ’s two natures in one Person.
451
Fathers
Chalcedon
Defines Christ’s two natures in one Person.
c. 440–461
Liturgy
Rome
Leonine sermons and sacramentary tradition deepen the Roman sense of the Mass as the mystery of Christ.
c. 5th–8th c.
Liturgy
Rome
The pope celebrates Mass at designated station churches across Rome through the liturgical year.
c. 380–450
Doctors
Ravenna
Golden Word; short homilies from Ravenna.
c. 400–c. 450
Fathers
Constantinople
Church History from A.D. 323–425; parallel to Socrates.
d. c. 450
Fathers
Lérins
Commonitory; the Vincentian canon of orthodoxy.
c. 376–444
Doctors
Alexandria
Council of Ephesus; Theotokos; Christological teaching.
440–461
Popes
Rome
Tome of Leo shapes Chalcedon; meets Attila; strengthens the Roman See.
c. 380–c. 439
Fathers
Constantinople
Church History covering A.D. 305–438; continuation of Eusebius.
c. 360–435
Fathers
Marseille
Bridges Eastern monasticism to the Latin West; Conferences.
432–440
Popes
Rome
431
Dogmas
Ephesus
The Council of Ephesus proclaims that the Virgin Mary is truly Mother of God, because the One born of her is the eternal Son made flesh.
431
Councils
Ephesus
Mary proclaimed Theotokos; Nestorianism condemned.
431
Fathers
Ephesus
Mary proclaimed Theotokos; Nestorianism condemned.
354–430
Doctors
Hippo
Confessions; City of God; doctor of grace and the West.
c. 363–c. 425
Fathers
Aquitaine
Life of St. Martin; Chronicle; Gallic monastic historian.
422–432
Popes
Rome
c. 347–420
Doctors
Bethlehem
Latin Vulgate; biblical scholarship from Bethlehem.
c. 363–c. 425
Fathers
Gaul
Life of St. Martin and Dialogues — chronicler of Gallic monasticism.
418–422
Popes
Rome
418–419
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition to Boniface I.
417–418
Popes
Rome
c. 345–411
Fathers
Aquileia
Translator of Origen and Eusebius; Ecclesiastical History continuation.
410
Secular
Rome
Visigoths sack the Eternal City — a shock that frames Augustine’s City of God.
c. 349–407
Doctors
Constantinople
Golden Mouth; preacher of Constantinople; biblical homilies.
402–417
Popes
Rome
c. 4th c. onward
Liturgy
Milan
The Church of Milan preserves its own Latin rite alongside the Roman — later exempted from Tridentine uniformity.
c. 400
Liturgy
Hippo
Augustine’s preaching and City of God shape Western understanding of the Eucharist as sign and true sacrifice.
c. 4th–5th c.
Liturgy
Rome
The central Eucharistic Prayer of the Roman Rite (Canon Missae) settles into the form known through the Middle Ages.
400
Fathers
English volume from the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (Schaff). Multiple works on the Fathers catalog may open this same volume.
400
Fathers
English volume from the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (Schaff). Multiple works on the Fathers catalog may open this same volume.
400
Fathers
English volume from the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (Schaff). Multiple works on the Fathers catalog may open this same volume.
399–401
Popes
Rome
c. 345–399
Fathers
Egypt
Desert ascetic and theorist of prayer; Praktikos and Chapters on Prayer.
c. 313–398
Fathers
Alexandria
Alexandrian exegete; On the Holy Spirit — teacher of Jerome and Rufinus.
c. 340–397
Doctors
Milan
Bishop and doctor; baptized Augustine; hymns and Scripture teaching.
395
Secular
Constantinople / Milan
Death of Theodosius I; Arcadius rules from Constantinople, Honorius in the West. The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire takes lasting shape.
c. 335–395
Fathers
Nyssa
Cappadocian Father; Life of Moses; mystical theology.
391–392
Secular
Roman Empire
Imperial laws suppress public pagan cult; the temples lose their civic role.
c. 390
Liturgy
Milan
Milanese mystagogical preaching explains the Mass and the Real Presence to the newly baptized.
c. 329–390
Doctors
Nazianzus
The Theologian; Five Theological Orations on the Trinity.
c. 313–386
Doctors
Jerusalem
Catechetical Lectures; mystagogy for the newly baptized.
384–399
Popes
Rome
381
Dogmas
Constantinople
The First Council of Constantinople affirms that the Holy Spirit is Lord and Giver of life, to be worshiped with the Father and the Son.
381
Councils
Constantinople
Expands the Creed; affirms the divinity of the Holy Spirit.
381
Fathers
Constantinople
Expands the Creed; affirms the divinity of the Holy Spirit.
c. 4th c.
Liturgy
Rome
Greek gradually yields to Latin in the Roman Mass; the Roman Canon takes a stable Latin form.
380
Secular
Roman Empire
Nicene Christianity established as the religion of the Empire.
c. 330–379
Doctors
Caesarea
Cappadocian Father; monastic rule; On the Holy Spirit.
c. 296–373
Doctors
Alexandria
Champion of Nicaea against Arianism; On the Incarnation.
c. 306–373
Doctors
Edessa
Harp of the Spirit; hymns and biblical commentary in Syriac.
c. 310–367
Doctors
Poitiers
Western defender of Nicaea; On the Trinity.
366–384
Popes
Rome
366–367
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition to Damasus I.
361–363
Secular
Roman Empire
Last pagan emperor attempts to restore the old cults; dies on campaign in Persia.
355–365
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Often treated historically as an antipope.
352–366
Popes
Rome
c. 350–360
Liturgy
Egypt
An early Egyptian euchologion shows the developing shape of the Eucharistic Prayer outside Rome.
c. 270–c. 345
Fathers
Persia
Persian Sage; Demonstrations — early Syriac ascetical and doctrinal writings.
c. 260–339
Fathers
Caesarea
Church History; Life of Constantine; foundational Christian historiography.
337–352
Popes
Rome
336
Popes
Rome
330
Secular
Constantinople
New Rome on the Bosphorus; Christian imperial capital of the East.
c. 255–330
Fathers
Of Sicca; Against the Heathen — late Latin apology from a convert from paganism.
325
Dogmas
Nicaea
The First Council of Nicaea solemnly confesses that the Son is true God, of one substance (homoousios) with the Father — against Arianism.
325
Councils
Nicaea
First ecumenical council; confesses the Son as consubstantial with the Father.
325
Fathers
Nicaea
First ecumenical council; confesses the Son as consubstantial with the Father.
c. 250–325
Fathers
Christian Cicero; Divine Institutes — systematic Latin apology before Nicaea.
324
Secular
Roman Empire
Constantine defeats Licinius; one Christian-friendly emperor rules East and West.
314–336
Popes
Rome
313
Secular
Milan
Legal toleration of Christianity in the Roman Empire.
312
Secular
Rome
Constantine’s victory; Chi-Rho; path to Christian toleration in the Empire.
311–314
Popes
Rome
311
Secular
Nicomedia / East
Galerius ends the Great Persecution in the East and asks Christians to pray for the Empire.
c. 250–311
Fathers
Bishop and martyr; Symposium on virginity; critic of Origen’s eschatology.
d. 311
Fathers
Bishop of Alexandria; martyr under Diocletian; canons on the lapsed.
309
Popes
Rome
308–309
Popes
Rome
d. c. 306
Fathers
Bishop of Thmuis; martyr; letter and apology before the prefect Culcianus.
d. c. 304
Fathers
Victorinus of Pettau — earliest Latin commentary on Revelation; martyr.
303–313
Secular
Roman Empire
The last and fiercest empire-wide persecution: churches razed, Scriptures burned, clergy imprisoned; ends with Galerius’s toleration and the Edict of Milan.
c. 260–300
Fathers
Bishop of Alexandria; pastoral letter to Lucianus on clergy and almsgiving.
c. 3rd c.
Fathers
Ante-Nicene witness preserved among the ANF fragments and notices.
296–304
Popes
Rome
284–305
Secular
Roman Empire
Diocletian restructures the Empire; the stage is set for the last and greatest persecution.
283–296
Popes
Rome
c. 230–280
Fathers
Alexandrian teacher; Hypotyposeis — early systematic outline of Christian doctrine.
c. 250–278
Fathers
Bishop in Mesopotamia; Acts of the Disputation with Manes — anti-Manichaean dialogue.
275–283
Popes
Rome
c. 230–275
Fathers
Alexandrian catechist called “Origen the Younger”; fragments of Easter and Hosea homilies.
c. 270–275
Secular
Roman Empire
Aurelian restores imperial unity after breakaway empires; brief late pressure on Christians before his death.
c. 213–270
Fathers
Wonder-worker of Neocaesarea; Panegyric on Origen; creed and pastoral letters.
c. 250–270
Fathers
Presbyter of Antioch; epistle against Paul of Samosata at the synod of Antioch.
269–274
Popes
Rome
c. 200–264
Fathers
Dionysius of Alexandria — bishop and correspondent on baptism, schism, and the Trinity.
259–268
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 259 to 268
c. 200–258
Fathers
Bishop of Carthage; On the Unity of the Church; letters and martyrdom under Valerian.
c. 200–258
Fathers
Roman theologian; On the Trinity; later rigorist schism over the lapsed.
257–260
Secular
Roman Empire
Edicts against clergy and Christian assemblies; martyrdom of Pope St. Sixtus II and St. Lawrence; St. Cyprian in Africa.
257–258
Popes
Rome
254–257
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 254 to 257
c. 184–254
Fathers
Alexandrian exegete; On First Principles, Hexapla, and vast biblical commentaries.
253–254
Popes
Rome
251–258
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. Founder of Novatianism; in opposition to Cornelius and successors.
251–253
Popes
Rome
250–251
Secular
Roman Empire
First empire-wide demand that all sacrifice to the gods; certificates of sacrifice; many martyrs and lapsi — a turning point for Church discipline.
c. 250
Liturgy
Carthage
Cyprian insists water be mixed with wine in the Lord’s cup, linking the rite to Church unity.
c. 200–250
Fathers
Alexander of Jerusalem — bishop and martyr; friend of Origen; letters and fragments.
c. 200–250
Fathers
Alexander of Cappadocia / Jerusalem — bishop, correspondent of Origen, and martyr.
3rd c.
Fathers
Roman Africa / Gaul (uncertain)
Latin Christian poet; Instructions in Favour of Christian Discipline against the gods of the heathen.
c. 180–250
Fathers
Early Christian writer; fragments on the Trinity and the true faith (Theodotus).
c. 160–240
Fathers
Chronographer of the early Church; Chronographiai and letters on sacred history.
236–250
Popes
Rome
235–284
Secular
Roman Empire
Civil war, plague, and invasion nearly shatter the Empire before Diocletian restores order.
c. 235–238
Secular
Roman Empire
Brief empire-wide hostility targeting clergy and Church leaders.
235–236
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from 235 to 236
c. 170–235
Fathers
Roman theologian; Refutation of All Heresies; Apostolic Tradition; martyr.
230–235
Popes
Rome
222–230
Popes
Rome
c. 155–220
Fathers
Carthaginian Latin father; Apology, Against Marcion; coined much Trinitarian vocabulary.
218–222
Popes
Rome
217–235
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition to Callixtus I, Urban I, and Pontian; later reconciled.
c. 180–217
Fathers
Roman presbyter; fragments against the Montanists and on the Roman church.
c. 215
Liturgy
Rome
An early Church order preserves an anaphora and ordination rites that illuminate third-century Roman practice.
c. 150–215
Fathers
Head of the Alexandrian catechetical school; Stromata, Paedagogus, Protrepticus.
c. 150–210
Fathers
Latin apologist; Octavius — dialogue defending the faith against pagan critique.
c. 202
Secular
Roman Empire / Africa
Imperial edict against conversion; martyrs include Sts. Perpetua and Felicity at Carthage.
c. 130–202
Doctors
Bishop of Lyons; Against Heresies — apostolic tradition against Gnosticism.
c. early Church–medieval
Liturgy
Rome / West
The sign of peace, attested from Justin onward, shifts place and form across centuries of Roman practice.
199–217
Popes
Rome
199–200
Popes
Rome
Antipope · Rome. In opposition to Zephyrinus; later reconciled.
c. 133–190
Fathers
Athenagoras of Athens — Plea for the Christians and On the Resurrection.
189–199
Popes
Rome
c. 120–183
Fathers
Bishop of Antioch; To Autolycus — early use of the word “Trinity.”
c. 180
Liturgy
Lyons
Against Heresies teaches the Eucharist as the Church’s pure sacrifice foretold by Malachi.
c. 180
Secular
Roman Empire
End of the Antonine age; pressures mount on the classical order.
c. 120–180
Fathers
Disciple of Justin; Address to the Greeks; compiler of the Diatessaron.
177
Secular
Lyons / Vienne
Under Marcus Aurelius, fierce local persecution in Gaul; martyrs include St. Blandina and St. Pothinus.
175–189
Popes
Rome
168–174
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from c. 167 to c. 174
c. 100–165
Fathers
Philosopher-martyr; First and Second Apology; Dialogue with Trypho.
c. 155
Liturgy
Rome
The First Apology outlines readings, a homily, the kiss of peace, the offering, and Communion — an early shape of the Mass.
c. 69–155
Fathers
Bishop of Smyrna; disciple of John; Letter to the Philippians and martyrdom account.
150–160
Popes
Rome
c. 130–150
Fathers
Epistle to Diognetus — anonymous apology on Christian life in the world.
c. 100–150
Fathers
The Shepherd of Hermas — visions, mandates, and similitudes on repentance.
140–154
Popes
Rome
138–140
Popes
Rome
132–135
Secular
Judea
Final major Jewish revolt against Rome; Judea renamed Syria Palaestina.
126–130
Popes
Rome
115–120
Popes
Rome
c. 112
Secular
Bithynia / Rome
Pliny’s letters from Bithynia; Trajan forbids hunting Christians yet punishes those who refuse to sacrifice — a standing legal pattern for decades.
c. 107–110
Liturgy
Antioch / Asia Minor
Ignatius calls the Eucharist the flesh of Christ and urges unity at one altar under the bishop.
107–110
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from c. 107 to c. 115
d. c. 107
Fathers
Bishop of Antioch; letters on unity, the Eucharist, and martyrdom en route to Rome.
late 1st c.
Fathers
Epistle of Barnabas — early Christian allegory of the Law and the two ways.
99–105
Popes
Rome
c. 35–99
Fathers
Bishop of Rome; First Clement to Corinth — early papal authority and church order.
c. 35–99
Fathers
Bishop of Rome; First Clement to Corinth — early papal authority and church order.
c. 35–99
Fathers
The Epistles of Clement — apostolic-era letters from the Roman church to Corinth.
c. 95
Secular
Roman Empire
Second wave of imperial hostility; exile of St. John and pressure on the Church in Asia traditionally linked to Domitian.
c. 90–110
Liturgy
Syria / Mediterranean
The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles preserves early Eucharistic thanksgiving prayers and Sunday assembly norms.
c. 70–100
Fathers
Syria / Palestine
The Didache (“Teaching of the Twelve Apostles”) is among the earliest Christian writings outside the New Testament — a short handbook of moral teaching, baptism, fasting, prayer, the Eucharist, and local church order. Most scholars date it to the late first or early second century (often c. 70–100), likely in Syria or Palestine. The Church has never received the Didache as Sacred Scripture. It stands with the Apostolic Fathers and early “church orders”: historically precious and useful as a window on primitive practice, but not canonical. Catholics may read it with profit as ancient catechesis, while measuring it against Scripture and the later defined faith of the Church. Its opening “Two Ways” (of life and of death) echoes Jewish moral tradition and the Gospel’s ethical demand. It gives early directions for baptism (preferably in living water; trinitarian formula), Wednesday and Friday fasting, the Lord’s Prayer thrice daily, and thanksgiving prayers over the cup and broken bread — among the oldest extant Eucharistic texts. It also speaks of itinerant prophets, Sunday assembly, and appointing bishops and deacons. This hosted English text is the public-domain Ante-Nicene Fathers translation (M.B. Riddle, 1886), from the Greek rediscovered in 1873 (Codex Hierosolymitanus). Related material also appears under the Collections dossier “Apostolic Teaching and Constitutions”; the longer Apostolic Constitutions are a later compilation and are not simply identical with the Didache.
88–99
Popes
Rome
c. 80
Secular
Rome
The Flavian Amphitheatre opens in Rome; later memory binds it to Christian martyrdom.
79–92
Popes
Rome
70
Secular
Jerusalem
Titus sacks Jerusalem; end of Temple sacrifice; Judaism and the Church take new forms.
67–79
Popes
Rome
Head of the Catholic Church from c. 68 to c. 80
64
Secular
Rome
Fire of Rome; Christians blamed; first imperial persecution; martyrdoms of Peter and Paul traditionally dated here.
c. 50–100
Liturgy
Jerusalem / Mediterranean
The Acts of the Apostles describe the faithful devoted to the apostles’ teaching and the breaking of the bread.
c. 50
Councils
Jerusalem
The apostles discern that Gentile converts need not keep the full Mosaic law.
40
Marian Apparition
Zaragoza, Spain
Bishop approved
c. AD 36–37
Secular
Judea / Rome
After suppressing a Samaritan gathering at Mount Gerizim, Vitellius (legate of Syria) orders Pilate to Rome. Tiberius dies before the hearing. Pilate’s birth and death dates are unknown; later Christian tradition alone speaks of his suicide.
c. 34–36
Damascus road
Saul of Tarsus meets the risen Christ on the road to Damascus; Apostle to the Nations.
33–67
Popes
Rome
First among the Apostles; martyred in Rome under Nero.
c. 33
Liturgy
Jerusalem
Christ institutes the Eucharist at the Passover meal — the origin of the Mass.
c. 30–33
Jerusalem
The Holy Spirit descends on the Apostles; the Church begins her public mission from Jerusalem.
c. 30–33
Secular
Jerusalem
The central events of salvation history in Jerusalem under Pontius Pilate.
c. 28–30
Machaerus
Beheaded by Herod Antipas; the Church honors his passion on 29 August.
c. 27–29
Jordan River
Christ is baptized by John in the Jordan; the Trinity is revealed; public ministry begins.
c. AD 26
Secular
Judea (Caesarea)
Fifth Roman prefect of Judea under Tiberius; he will preside at the trial of Jesus.
14
Secular
Rome
Augustus dies; Tiberius rules during the public ministry and Passion of Christ.
c. AD 8
Jerusalem
At about twelve years of age, Jesus is found among the teachers in the Temple.
c. 6–4 BC
Bethlehem
Incarnation in Bethlehem of Judea under Herod and Augustus.
c. 5–4 BC
Bethlehem / Egypt
Herod seeks the Child’s life; the Holy Family flees to Egypt; the Holy Innocents are martyred.
c. 6–4 BC
Jerusalem
Mary and Joseph present the Child according to the Law; Simeon and Anna prophesy — Candlemas.
4 BC
Secular
Judea
Herod dies; his kingdom is divided among his sons under Roman oversight.
c. 6–5 BC
Nazareth
The angel Gabriel announces that Mary will conceive the Son of God by the Holy Spirit; feast on 25 March.
c. 6–5 BC
Judea
Forerunner of the Lord; born to Zechariah and Elizabeth about six months before Christ.
c. 6–5 BC
Judean hill country
Mary visits Elizabeth; John leaps in the womb; the Magnificat is sung.
c. 7–5 BC
Nazareth
Mary is betrothed to Joseph of the house of David before the Annunciation.
c. 15–12 BC
Jerusalem
Tradition honors Mary’s dedication in the Temple; feast on 21 November.
c. 18–15 BC
Nazareth
Nativity of Mary, Mother of God — traditionally honored on 8 September.
c. 20 BC
Secular
Jerusalem
Grand rebuilding of the Second Temple complex in Jerusalem.
27 BC
Secular
Rome
The Principate begins; Pax Romana — the imperial world into which Christ is born.
31 BC
Secular
Actium, Greece
Octavian defeats Antony and Cleopatra; sole power in Rome is secured.
49–31 BC
Secular
Rome
Civil wars from Caesar’s Rubicon to Actium end the Republic and open the way to empire.
63 BC
Secular
Jerusalem
Rome enters Judea; the Holy Land comes under Roman political power.
146 BC
Secular
Corinth / Carthage
Greece and Africa fall under Roman dominion; the Republic rules the Mediterranean world.
167–160 BC
Secular
Judea
Jewish resistance to Seleucid persecution; rededication of the Temple (Hanukkah).
264–146 BC
Secular
Mediterranean
Rome defeats Carthage and becomes master of the western Mediterranean.
336–323 BC
Secular
Macedonia / Near East
Hellenistic empires spread Greek language and culture across the Near East.
490–479 BC
Secular
Greece
Greek victory over Persia preserves the independence of the Hellenic world.
c. 508 BC
Secular
Athens
Classical political experiment that later influences the West.
509 BC
Secular
Rome
Traditional expulsion of the kings; consuls and the Republic replace the monarchy — the constitutional order of Rome for nearly five centuries.
c. 516 BC
Secular
Jerusalem
Temple worship restored under Zerubbabel after the exile.
538 BC
Secular
Jerusalem / Persia
Persia permits Judeans to return and rebuild the Temple.
586 BC
Secular
Jerusalem
Babylon razes Jerusalem; Judah goes into exile.
722 BC
Secular
Samaria
Assyria destroys Samaria; the ten tribes are exiled.
c. 8th c. BC
Secular
Greece
Epic culture and city-states that shape the classical West.
753 BC
Secular
Rome
Legendary foundation date of the city that will rule the Mediterranean.
c. 930 BC
Secular
Israel / Judah
Israel (north) and Judah (south) split after Solomon.
c. 960 BC
Secular
Jerusalem
Solomon’s Temple; sacrificial worship centered in Jerusalem.
c. 1000 BC
Secular
Jerusalem
City of David becomes the political and cultic heart of Israel.
c. 13th c. BC
Secular
Egypt / Sinai
Israel’s deliverance from Egypt — founding memory of the covenant people.
c. 1800 BC
Secular
Canaan / Mesopotamia
Traditional setting of Abraham’s call and the beginnings of Israel’s story.
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